UNIT 4
ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH
Unit outline
Unit objectives
41
4.1
Linking /r/ and intrusive /r/
41
4.2
Assimilation
42
4.2.1
Regressive assimilation
42
4.2.2
Progressive assimilation
43
4.2.3
Reciprocal assimilation
44
4.2.4
Obligatory and non-obligatory assimilation
45
4.3
Elision
46
4.3.1
Vowel elision
46
4.3.2
Consonant elision
47
4.4
Strong and weak forms of function words
48
4.4.1
Uses of weak forms
48
4.4.2
Uses of strong forms
50
Summary
52
Key concepts
52
Further reading
52
SAA No. 3
53
Answers to SAQs
53
After you have completed the study of this unit you should be able to:
explain the phonetic phenomena that occur in casual speech. i.e. assimilation*, elision*, etc
distinguish carefully between cases when function words* are in focal and non-focal positions
use the strong and weak forms* of function words properly, thus avoiding an unnatural, visibly foreign pronunciation (that can be a potential barrier to fluency and a source of misunderstanding)
discriminate careful, standard speech from rapid, non-standard speech pronunciations
distinguish British from American pronunciation variants
produce casual pronunciations of frequent sound sequences
Normal speech cannot be imagined to be spoken “one word at a time”, with pauses* corresponding to the spaces of the written language. Spoken language is a continuous sequence in which each separate unit of sound is not pronounced in isolation but as part of a larger unit. In this process, sounds undergo modifications due to the transition* from one sound unit to another.
4.1 Linking r* and intrusive /r/*
Linking /r/
Although British speakers pronounce car without the final r, the r often does emerge if the following word begins with a vowel. Linking /r/ is the phoneme /r/ in word final position which is pronounced when the next word begins with a vowel. In standard RP a written word-final r is not pronounced before a pause* or a following consonant sound. Compare, for example, the car is there with the car was there. In the first example the r is pronounced and gets attached to the following syllable. This is the linking /r/. Further occurrences of linking /r/ can be found in: Here it is, Far away or they’re at home.
Intrusive /r/
There are instances when the presence of an intervocalic /r/ is not orthographically justified, as in law and order /’l:r ənd ’:də/. This inserted /r/ between two words or syllables in sequence, where the first ends in a vowel sound and the second begins with one, and which has no correspondent r in spelling is called intrusive /r/.
Intrusive /r/ is much criticized, but is quite commonly heard in standard RP and other non-rhotic accents. It occurs after the vowels, e.g.:
/ə/: idea (r) of it, umbrella (r) organization
/:/: law (r) and order
/α׃/: grandpa (r) is ill
/з׃/ a milieu (r) in which…
Both linking /r/ and intrusive /r/ are used in non-rhotic accents to prevent the vowels of two adjacent syllables to directly succeed one another. By adding an /r/ the utterance* gains in fluidity. (Meyer, 2002: 91)
4.2 Assimilation
The effect on a speech sound of the articulation of other adjacent sounds is called assimilation. This is a common feature of speech, though one that many native speakers are unaware of. Assimilation varies according to speaking rate and style; it is more likely to be found in rapid, casual speech and less likely, in slow, careful speech. In every assimilation process we distinguish between assimilating and assimilated* phonemes.
4.2.1 Regressive assimilation
Types of assimilation
Assimilation is regressive when the preceding sound is influenced by the immediately following one. Regressive assimilation or assimilation of place (Roach, 1994:124) is most clearly noticeable in some cases where a final consonant with alveolar place of articulation (e.g. /t/, /d/) is followed by an initial consonant with a place of articulation* that is not alveolar. For instance, the final consonant in that
/ðæt / is alveolar /t/. In rapid, casual speech, the /t/ will become /p/ before a bilabial* consonant (e.g. /p/, /b/) as in that person /ðæp p3:sn /, the /d/ will become /b/ as in good people /gub pi:pl/, etc.
SAQ 1
Transcribe the unassimilated* and assimilated pronunciations of these phrases:
1. light blue ………………….…..
2 . good boy ………………………
3. a good man ……………………...
4. this shop ……………………….
5. ten more .……………………….
Check your transcriptions against those given in the answer section.
Think First!
Look at these spellings:
stay – stays – stayed – staying
convey – conveys – conveyed – conveying
study – studies – studied – studying
cry – cries – cried - crying
Can you remember the y to i rule stated in the previous chapter? If you do, write it down in the space provided below; if you don’t, find it in section 3.2 and then copy it in the space provided below.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4.2.2 Progressive assimilation*
A reverse type of assimilation (progressive assimilation) is found when a sound is changed by the influence of a previous one.
For instance, the third person singular -s suffix, the -s plural suffix and the 's possessive suffix, are pronounced /s/ if the preceding consonant is fortis* (“voiceless”) and /z / if the preceding consonant is lenis* (“voiced”): jumps /dmps/ cats kæts/, Pat’ s /pæts vs. runs /rnz/, dogs /dgz/, Pam’ s /pæmz/.
The pronunciation of the endings –s and -ed
Progressive assimilation is an established and regular feature of the ending –s of verbs and nouns, which usually has a voiced /z/ sound (or /ız/ after all sibilants*) but after voiceless sounds other than sibilants is /s/ (e.g. taps – tabs, hats - heeds, dock’s - dog’s, griefs - grieves). Similarly, the past tense –ed ending /d/ or /ıd/ is devoiced* to a /t/ sound after a voiceless consonant other than /t/ itself: roped, lacked, roofed, pushed versus robed, lagged, grooved, hated, headed, etc.
SAQ 2
Give the phonemic transcription of these words to show the progressive type of assimilation that can occur:
1.Keith’s ….
2.youths …..
3.eyes ….
4.seems ….
5.runs ….
6.dolls ….
7.pieces ….
8.daisies ….
9.offered ….
10.fitted ….
11.kidnapped ….
Write your answers in the spaces provided and then compare them to those given at the end of the unit.
4.2.3 Reciprocal assimilation
Assimilation is reciprocal (double) when both sounds (the assimilating and the assimilated one) undergo changes. In twice /w / becomes partly devoiced under the influence of /t/, while /t/ is rounded because of /w/.
A particular type of double assimilation is coalescence* in which two adjacent phonemes mix to such an extent that a third phoneme emerges. Historically this has occurred in words like soldier, picture, or fissure, where the reconstructable earlier pronunciation /‘soldjər/, /‘pıktu:r/, /‘fısju:r/ has become /‘səldзə/, /‘pıktə/, /fıə/.
In current colloquial English, similar assimilation occurs in phrases such as What d’you want? /wtə wnt/ or Could you? /‘kdu:/. This coalescent* assimilation is also known as yod coalescence or palatalization*.
SAQ 3
Historically, the phonemes /d/ and /j/ coalesced, i.e. mixed to such an extent that gave birth to /d/ in a word like soldier. In the same manner /t/ and /j/ fused and finally produced the affricate* /t/ in question.
What coalescent* variants can be heard nowadays in:
a. intuition ….
b. grandeur ….
c. duel ….
Write your answers in the space provided at the right-hand side. Compare your transcriptions with the pronunciations given at the end of the unit.
4.2.4 Obligatory and non-obligatory assimilation
Synchronic assimilation may be obligatory (or established) and accidental (or non-obligatory).
Certain occurrences of assimilation are obligatory in the sense that they represent the norm in the language. Here are such instances:
unaspiratedness* of /p, t, k/ after /s/ : speak, stake, school
devoicing* of /l, r, w, j/ after voiceless plosives*: close, from
devoicing of /m, n/ after /s/: smile, snake
rounding of preceding consonants by /w/: twenty
Non-obligatory assimilation may be illustrated by these pronunciations:
give me /givmi:/ or /gimmi/
did you /didju:/ or /diddu:/
let me /letmi/ or / lemmi/
was sure /wzu/ or /w u/
You need to be aware of the phenomenon of assimilation in order to understand colloquial English and to make a proper use of assimilated* variants just like English speakers do.
4.3 Elision
Elision is usually referred to as the omission of a sound (sounds) in connected speech*. This phenomenon occurs when sounds occur in clusters which are difficult to pronounce (e.g. last month, cost price, next shop, landscape) or when they appear in unstressed syllables(e.g. round the corner, night time, handbag). Elision may involve both vowels and consonants
Like assimilation, elision is typical of rapid, casual speech, and it can be historical* and contextual or synchronic*. For foreign learners of English it is important to know that when native speakers of English talk to each other; quite a number of phonemes that the foreigner might expect to hear are not actually pronounced.
4.3.1 Vowel elision
Elision of schwa* //
Elision of vowels takes place in unstressed syllables. The common vowels which are usually omitted are / / and /i/.
// (schwa*) may be lost in an initial unstressed syllable when the next vowel in the word is stressed as in correct /krekt/.
The consonant which usually follows schwa can be /l/ as in police /plis/, buffalo /bflu/, /r/ as in history /histri/, temporary /temprri/, reference /refrns/, or /n/ as in reasonable.
In British English the elision of schwa is firmly established in many words ending in -ory (territory) -ery (nursery), -ary (customary), -ury, -ily, and adverbs ending in -fully, e.g. carefully.
Elision of /i/
/i/ may be lost in such words as geography /dgrfi/, university /ju:ni'vsiti/.
SAQ 4
Give the corresponding spellings of these pronunciations that can occur in casual speech:
a./spəuz/ …………………
b./præps/ ………………….
c./kεəfli/ ………………….
d./t’nait/ ………………….
Write your answers in the spaces provided. Compare them to the spellings given in the answer section.
4.3.2 Consonant elision
Elision of /t/ and /d/
The consonants that are most likely to be elided are /t/ and /d/ occurring medially in consonant clusters*.
The elision of /t/ occurs when /t/ follows a fortis consonant and precedes any consonant (e.g. mostly, exactly, first time /fə:s taim/).
The dropping of /d/ occurs when /d/ follows any consonant and precedes any consonant (e.g. handsome, handbag, friendship)
Final /d/ of the grammatical word and can be omitted before vowels as well as consonants (e.g. ham and / n / eggs).
Elision of /k/, //, /ð/
/k/ is deleted only in a few forms, e.g. extraordinary /i’str:dnri/, expected /i’spektid/, excursion /i’skə:n/.
Elision also affects /l/ in rapid speech, when preceded by /:/ and followed by a consonant: alright, already.
/, ð/ are omitted in clusters which are difficult to pronounce: sixth, months, twelfths, clothes.
In rhetorical terms, the removal of an element from the beginning of a word is known as aphaeresis (I' ve); the loss of a sound or letter in word-medial position as called syncope (e’er instead of ever) and in word-final position apocope (snakes and /n/ ladders).
SAQ 5
In casual speech /t/, /d/ and /k/ when medial in three-consonant clusters may be dropped. Practise and transcribe these words and phrases to illustrate the process:
a.last year ……………………
b.thousand points …………………….
c.kindness …………………….
d.asked him ……………………..
Write your answers in the spaces provided. You will find an answer in the key section at the end of this unit
4.4 Strong and weak forms of function words
A phonological phenomenon which is characteristic of the English language and has no equivalent in Romanian is the existence of two possible pronunciations for the grammatical function) words. Thus, about sixty words including articles, auxiliaries, modals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions adverbs, pronominal adjectives, may display two forms: a strong one, when they occur in accented (focal) position and a weak one, when they are unaccented (in a non-focal position).
Disadvantages of using only strong forms*
It is possible to use only strong forms in speaking and some foreigners do this. Usually they can still be understood by other speakers of English, but it is important to learn how weak forms are used. There are two main reasons: first, most native speakers of English find an ”all-strong-form” pronunciation unnatural and foreign-sounding, something that most learners would wish to avoid.
Second, and more importantly, speakers who are not familiar with the use of weak forms are likely to have difficulty in understanding speakers who do use weak forms; since practically all native speakers of British English use them, learners of the language need to learn about these weak forms to help them to understand what they hear (Roach, 1994:102).
4.4.1 Uses of weak forms
Conjunctions and prepositions
The most frequently used form is the weak one. Several words in English have more than one weak form: and /ænd/ can be /nd/, /n/, /n/: fish and chips, food and drink.
Prepositions are used with their weak form whenever they carry no accent:
for is pronounced /f / when the word which follows begins with a consonant (They called John for me) and /fr/ when it starts with a vowel.
from /frm/ becomes /frm/ in: from time to time, we walked from school to school
of has the weak form /v/ in: a cup of tea, the end of the road.
SAQ 6
Practise and transcribe the following phrases, using the weak form of the function words*:
as fast as he can ….
for love nor money ….
for ever and ever ….
students and teachers ….
time and money ….
Check your transcriptions against those given at the end of the unit.
Auxiliaries
Auxiliaries and modals are usually pronounced in their weak form:
am pronounced /m, m/: I'm in a hurry /aim in hri/
are pronounced /, r /: When are they coming /wen ðei kmi/
does pronounced /dz, z, s/: What does it mean? /wt dz it 'mi:n/
have pronounced /hv, v, v/: Where have you been? /we v ju bin/
was pronounced /wz/ : He was seen by everybody /hi wz si:n bai evri bdi /
were pronounced /w/ + consonant: Where were they working? /we w ðei w3:ki/
will pronounced /l/: I think I'll stop here /ai ik ail stp hi/
Think first!
Must is pronounced in its weak form /məst/, or in its strong form, /mΛst/, depending on whether it shows:
supposition (You must be exhausted)
or
obligation (You must study those books as indicated).
Give the pronunciation of must in the following sentences:
1.You must be tired.
………………………………………………………
2.Of course we must try.
………………………………………………………
3.They must obey the rules of the game.
………………………………………………………
4.You must have met him in England.
……………………………………………………….
5.He must buy it and so must I.
………………………………………………………..
6.We must learn it by heart.
………………………………………………………..
Compare your answers with the information below.
Modals
could pronounced /kd/: He could have been more helpful /hi kd v bin m: helpful/
should pronounced /d/: They should come earlier /ðei d km 3:li/
must pronounced /mst/: I must answer that letter /ai mst ans ðæt let/.
Weak forms of modal verbs are more often used in colloquial speech than strong forms.
SAQ 7
Practise reducing the auxiliary and modal verbs in the following:
have watched ………………………………
were to do ………………………………
could try ………………………………
should go ………………………………
would make ………………………………
You can find the suggested answer in the key section at the end of unit 4.
4.4.2 Uses of strong forms
In general, function words are used in their strong (unreduced) form when they are uttered in isolation and for reasons of contrast (when emphasis is implied).
Prepositions
Prepositions are used in their accented form when they are situated at the end of sentences or sense groups:
at /æt/: He was being laughed at.
for /f:/: I was called for at ten.
of /v /: What is it made of?
to /tu/: Who are you talking to?
The strong or weak forms of prepositions may be used when they occur before unstressed pronouns: He was unknown to me.
/hi wəz Λn’nəun tə/tu: mi/.
Auxiliaries and modals
The strong forms of auxiliary and modal verbs are used when they act as main verb substitutes:
does pronounced /dz/: Of course, he does.
should pronounced /ud/: Yes, I should.
can pronounced /kæn/: Of course, he can.
must pronounced / mst / yes, I must.
The strong form of modals is also compulsory when they are used in the negative contracted form. Compare:
You can do it /ju kən du: it/
with
You can’t do it /ju k:nt du: it/
The modal verb have is always used in its strong form, /hæv/:
I have to leave now.
There adverb and empty pronoun (in there is/are)
As for there, it is pronounced /ðe(r)/ when it is a demonstrative (Don't go there) and /ð(r)/ in the verbal phrase there is, there are (There aren't any flowers).
SAQ 8
Read and transcribe these phrases and sentences, noting carefully the difference between there as an adverb and as a semantically empty pronoun:
a. over there
………………
b. There’s a car in front of the house
………………………………………….
c. Is there any coffee left?
………………………………
d. What’s there?
………………….
Check your answers against those suggested in the answer section.
That (demonstrative and conjunction)
The demonstrative that is pronounced /ðt/ when it is a conjunction or a relative pronoun: I hope that he will. Its strong form /ðæt/ is used when it is a demonstrative: I don't like that book.
Summary
Connected speech causes individual words to be adapted in various ways. Linking elements may have to be added between words ending and beginning with a vowel, elision may be needed, and especially consonants may be adapted to each other, which is known assimilation.
Many function words (e.g. articles, auxiliaries, modals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions) change in quality and/or quantity according to whether they are unstressed (as is usual) or stressed (in special situations or when in isolation).
The tendency to weaken vowels towards schwa in conversational English may be to be a difficult aspect of English to learn for most non-native speakers, partly because of an over-reliance on spelling as a guide to pronunciation.
Key concepts
accidental assimilation
intrusive /r/
linking /r/
obligatory assimilation
progressive assimilation
reciprocal assimilation
regressive assimilation
consonant elision
strong form
vowel elision
weak form
Further reading
1.Chiţoran, Dumitru şi Hortensia Pârlog. 1989. Ghid de pronunţie a limbii engleze. Bucureşti: Editura ştiinţifică şi enciclopedică, pp. 140-147
2.Meyer, Paul Georg et al. 2002. Synchronic English Linguistics. An Introduction. Tubingen: Gunter NarrVerlag Tubingen, p. 87-91
3.Pârlog, Hortensia. 1997. English Phonetics and Phonology. Bucureşti: Editura ALL, pp. 114-119.
SAA No. 3
Give the transcription of the following phrases and sentences. Identify the phonetic phenomena which may occur in rapid, colloquial speech:
1.closed door
2.blocked passage
3.in my room
4.What you want?
5.Would you?
6.In case you want?
7.Has your car come?
8.We sang and danced.
9.I saw Helen and Nick and Bob.
10.The car that is broken belongs to their firm.
11.What’s that for?
12.Which book do they need?
13.I do try to cook your lunch.
14.He must buy it and so must I.
15.We must learn it by heart.
Send your answer to the tutor.
The maximum score for this assignment is 20 points:
- 15 points for correct phonemic transcription;
- 5 points for correct identification of phonetic phenomena.
Answers to SAQs
Should your answers to SAQ 1, SAQ 2 and SAQ 3 be different from the ones suggested below, please reread section 4.2.
SAQ 1
a./’lait ‘blu:/ and /’laip ‘blu:/
b./gud b
c.ə gud mæn/ and /ə gub mæn/
d. /ðis p /and /ðı p/
e. /ten m:/ and /tem m:/
SAQ 2
a. /kiθs/
b. /ju:θ s/
c./aiz/
d./si:mz/
e./rΛnz/
f./dlz/
g./pi:siz/
h./deiziz/
i./:fəd/
j./fitid/
k./kidnæpt/
SAQ 3
a. intuition /Int∫u׃’I∫(ə)n/
b. grandeur /’grǽndə/
c. duel /’du׃əl/
Should your answer to SAQ 4 be different from the one suggested below, please reread section 4.3.1.
SAQ 4
1.suppose
2.perhaps
3.carefully
4.tonight
Should your answer to SAQ 5 be different from the one suggested below, please reread section 4.3.2.
SAQ 5
a. /l:s jiə:/
b. /Θauzn pnts/
c. /kainnəs/
d. asked him /:st im/
Should your answer to SAQ 6 be different from the one suggested below, please reread section 4.4.1.
SAQ 6
as fast as he can /əz/
for love nor money /fə/
for ever and ever /fər/, /nd/
students and teachers /ən/
time and money /n/
Should your answer to SAQ 7 be different from the one suggested below, please reread sections 4.4.1 and 4.4.2.
SAQ 7
/həv wət
/wə tə du/
/kəd trai/
/əd gəu/
/wəd meik/
Should your answer to SAQ 8 be different from the one suggested below, please reread section 4.4.2
SAQ 8
a. əuvə ‘ðεə/
b. /ðər’iz ə ‘k: in frnt əv ðə ‘hus/
c. /iz ðər æni ‘k
d. /wðεə/